Disfunción renal en el paciente cirrótico: prevención y tratamiento / Renal failure in the cirrhotic patient: prevention and treatment

Prerenal injury and hepatorenal syndrome (HRS) are the main causes of acute renal injury (ARI) in liver cirrhosis. Both can produce a reduction to the blood flow and lead to acute tubular necrosis. Cirrhotic patients may also present with chronic renal diseases, for example, diabetic nephropathy or chronic glomerulonephritis; however these are less frequent in cirrhosis as a cause of renal failure. The causes of acute renal failure that can be excluded before HRS diagnosis are: hypovolemia, shock, parenchymal renal disease and use of nephrotoxic drugs. Parenchymal renal disease must be suspected when there is significant proteinuria and microhematuria, or if renal ultrasound shows abnormal renal size. Renal biopsy might help in the diagnosis. ARI treatment is correction of hypovolemia with plasma expanders in the first place, and then, in case of Type 1 HRS, the use of a vasoconstrictor drug such as terlipressin plus intravenous albumin; both have shown benefit as a bridge to a liver transplant, and the latter is the definitive treatment for HRS. Transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt (TIPS) has shown to reduce portal hypertension, reducing ascites and improving renal function in patients with Type 2 HRS. Intermittent or continuous hemodialysis can be used in Type 1 HRS patients as a bridge to a liver transplant, because without the transplant a minority will survive, even with renal replacement therapy.

La insuficiencia renal pre-renal y el síndrome hepato-renal (SHR) son las principales causas de insuficiencia renal aguda (IRA) en cirrosis hepática. Ambas pueden producir una disminución del flujo sanguíneo renal y conducir a una necrosis tubular aguda. Los pacientes con cirrosis también pueden tener enfermedades renales crónicas, por ejemplo una nefropatía diabética o una glomerulonefritis crónica, pero son menos frecuentes en cirrosis como causa de insuficiencia renal. Las causas de falla renal aguda que pueden ser excluidas antes de llegar al diagnóstico de SHR son: hipovolemia, shock, enfermedad renal parenquimatosa y uso de drogas nefrotóxicas. La enfermedad renal parenquimatosa debe ser sospechada cuando hay proteinuria significativa y microhematuria o si la ecografía renal muestra anormalidades en el tamaño renal. La biopsia renal podría realizarse para ayudar al diagnóstico. El tratamiento de la insuficiencia renal aguda pasa primero por la corrección de la hipovolemia con expansores plasmáticos y luego en el caso del SHR tipo 1, la utilización de un vasoconstrictor como la terlipresina asociado a la albúmina endovenosa, que han demostrado beneficio como puente para el trasplante hepático, siendo este último el tratamiento definitivo del SHR. El shunt transyugular porto sistémico o TIPS ha demostrado beneficio en disminuir la hipertensión portal, reducción de la ascitis y mejoría de la función renal en pacientes con SHR tipo 2. La hemodiálisis intermitente o continua puede usarse en los pacientes con SHR tipo1 como puente para el trasplante, ya que la minoría sobrevivirán incluso con reemplazo renal si no son trasplantados.

Espectro clínico de la hepatotoxicidad por nitrofurantoína en serie clínica de 12 pacientes / Clinical spectrum of nitrofurantoin hepatotoxicity in a series of 12 patients

Nitrofurantoin, commonly used for prolonged periods, can produce different patterns of liver damage. Patients: 12 women, mean age 55 years (range 17-72), with recurrent urinary infections, treated with nitrofurantoin for long periods of time (2 months to 15 years), who presented with secondary liver disease. Results: 7 had acute hepatitis (3 fulminant), 3 chronic hepatitis, and 2 cirrhosis. All acute cases had consistent liver biopsies, and 2 were treated with steroids and azathioprine for 2 and 7 months, with liver tests normalization. Two fulminant cases were transplanted (submassive hepatic necrosis on explanted livers) and 1 was successfully treated with steroids and mycofenolate. The 3 cases of chronic hepatitis also had confirmatory biopsies and 1 received steroids and azathioprine, with full recovery. The other 2 responded to the drug withdrawal and the 2 cirrhotic patients had only symptomatic treatment. All patients were negative for hepatitis virus, 7 (58 percent had positive anti-nuclear and/or anti-smooth muscle antibodies and 4 (33 percent) had elevated IgG levels. Conclusions: Nitrofurantoin may cause severe acute liver disease, even requiring liver transplantation. Nitrofurantoin can also cause chronic liver disease, have markers of autoimmunity and respond to immunosuppressive therapy. These data confirmed that nitrofurantoin can induce liver diseases, probably due to immunological mechanisms.

La nitrofurantoína, comúnmente utilizada por períodos prolongados, puede producir daño hepático, con diferentes formas de presentación y evolución. Pacientes: 12 mujeres, edad promedio 55 años (rango 17 a 72), con infecciones urinarias recurrentes, usuarias de nitrofurantoína por períodos prolongados (2 meses a 15 años), que presentaron daño hepático asociado a la droga. Resultados: 7 casos de hepatitis aguda (3 fulminantes), 3 casos de hepatitis crónica y 2 casos de cirrosis. Todos los casos de hepatitis agudas tenían biopsia hepática compatible y 2 fueron tratadas con corticoides y azatioprina por 2 y 7 meses, con normalización de los exámenes. De las 3 pacientes con hepatitis fulminante, 2 fueron trasplantadas (necrosis submasiva en el hígado explantado) y 1 fue tratada con corticoides y micofenolato, con buena respuesta. Los 3 casos de hepatitis crónica tenían confirmación histológica y 1 se trató con corticoides y azatioprina, con excelente evolución. Las otras pacientes respondieron favorablemente sólo a la suspensión del fármaco. Los 2 casos con cirrosis han recibido tratamiento sintomático. Todas las pacientes fueron negativas para los virus hepatitis, 7/12 (58 por ciento) tenían anticuerpos antinucleares y/o antimúsculo liso positivos y 4/12 (33 por ciento) IgG elevada. Conclusión: La nitrofurantoína puede provocar una severa enfermedad hepática aguda, requiriendo incluso trasplante hepático. Además, puede producir hepatitis crónica y cirrosis, tener marcadores de autoinmunidad y buena respuesta a la terapia inmunosupresora habitual. Lo anterior confirma su capacidad de inducir un daño hepático, probablemente por mecanismos inmunológicos.

Hepatocarcinoma y trombosis portal diagnosticados por ecografía y tomografía computada en pacientes cirróticos chilenos en un hospital público, 2004 - 2011 / Hepatocellular carcinoma and portal vein thrombosis diagnosed by sonography and ct scan in chilean cirrhotic patients between 2004 and 2011

There is no available data on prevalence of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and portal thrombosis (PT) in Chilean cirrhotic patients. Objectives: To evaluate the development of these entities and the role ultrasound (US) may play as the imaging method of choice in their diagnostic approach. Material and methods: A cohort study of patients with diagnosis of cirrhosis by US or CT scans between 2004 and 2008. We evaluated both demographic and clinical records, along with disease development until 2011, by performing a retrospective review of their imaging findings. We investigated whether patients presented HCC and / or PT as detected by US / CT studies. Results: Two hundred and eleven (211) patients with an average age of 62.6 years were included. HCC was diagnosed in 10.4 percent of cases, whilst PT was observed in 4.3 percent of patients. A 33 percent of PT occurred in association with HCC and exhibited worse survival rates. Ultrasonographic studies yielded suspicious results in a significant percentage of cases, thus CT scans were performed to confirm the diagnosis. Conclusions: Ultrasound examination appears to be a useful tool for detecting complications of cirrhosis.

No existen datos en pacientes cirróticos chilenos de prevalencia de hepatocarcinoma(CHC) y trombosis portal(TP). Objetivos: Evaluar el desarrollo de estas complicaciones y el rol que podría jugar el ultrasonido (US) como primer método de imagen en su aproximación diagnóstica. Material y métodos: Estudio de cohorte en pacientes diagnosticados mediante US o TC de cirrosis entre 2004 y 2008. Se evaluaron datos demográficos, clínicos, y su evolución hasta 2011, realizando revisión retrospectiva de sus estudios imagenológicos. Se investigó si presentaron HCC y/o TP que fueran detectados mediante US/TC. Resultados: Se incluyeron 211 pacientes, con un promedio de 62,6 años. En el 10,4 por ciento se diagnosticó HCC y en el 4,3 por ciento TP. El 33 por ciento de TP ocurrieron asociadas a CHC y determinaron peor sobrevida. El US fue sospechoso en un porcentaje significativo de los casos, motivando la realización de TC confirmatoria. Conclusiones: El US aparece como una herramienta útil para la detección de complicaciones de cirrosis.

Alteraciones de la tolerancia a la glucosa y frecuencia de síndrome metabólico en pacientes con enfermedad por hígado graso no alcohólico / Glucose tolerance alterations and frequency of metabolic syndrome among patients with non alcoholic fatty liver disease

Background: Non alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is associated to diabetes mellitus, obesity, disturbances in serum lipid levels, insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Aim: To assess glucose tolerance and the presence of metabolic syndrome among patients with biopsy proven NAFLD. Patients and methods: Serum lipid levels, hepatic function tests were measured and an oral glucose tolerance test was performed in 46 patients (mean age 45±12 years, 36 females) without history of diabetes mellitus and with steatosis in a liver biopsy. Results: Mean body mass index of the sample was 37±12 kg/m². Seventeen percent had pure steatosis, 78 percent had steatohepatitis with or without fibrosis and 50 percent had fibrosis in the liver biopsy. Glucose intolerance and diabetes was found in 57 percent and 15 percent of cases, respectively. The presence of steatohepatitis was higher in diabetics, compared with subjects with glucose intolerance or a normal glucose response (43, 38 and 8 percent, respectively, p <0.0001). Ninety three percent had a metabolic syndrome and the proportion of biopsies with fibrosis was higher among subjects with more than three diagnostic criteria for metabolic syndrome compared with those with three or less criteria (59 and 46 percent, respectively, p <0.05). Conclusions: Glucose intolerance, diabetes and metabolic syndrome are common among patients with NAFLD, even when they are not obese.

Diálisis con albúmina MARS (Molecular Adsorbent Recirculating System) como puente para el trasplante hepático en insuficiencia hepática fulminante: presentación de 3 casos / Albumin dialysis MARS (Molecular Adsorbent Recirculating System) in acute liver failure, before liver transplantation: report of three cases

The most successful therapy for acute liver failure is liver transplantation. However, due to the low number of donors, organ support therapies need to be used as a bridge to liver transplantation. Molecular Adsorbents Recirculating System (MARS) is a dialysis treatment that uses a recirculating dialysate containing albumin. This allows the removal of both hydrosoluble and albumin-related substances. This system improves hepatic encephalopathy, renal dysfunction and some clinical parameters in acute liver failure, but there is no clear decrease in mortality. We report three women aged 23, 21 and 61 years, that were subjected to liver transplantation, in whom this therapy was successfully used.

Tumores neuroendocrinos gástricos: presentación clínica, endoscópica y alternativas de tratamiento / Clinical and endoscopic presentation of gastric neuroendocrine tumors

Background: Gastric neuroendocrine tumors correspond to less than 1 percent of all gastric tumors. These tumors can be of three types. Seventy five percent are type I and are associated to chronic atrophic gastritis type A (CAG- A). Half of them are associated with pernicious anemia. Type II tumors are associated with Zollinger Ellison syndrome and type I multiple endocrine neoplasia. Type III are sporadic tumors. Aim: To report the clinical, endoscopical features and response to the treatment of gastric neuroendocrine tumors. Patients and methods: A retrospective study of eleven patients (seven male, aged 38 to 72 years old) with a pathological diagnosis of gastric neuroendocrine tumor. Their clinical presentation, associated diseases, treatment and follow up were reviewed. Results: Epigastric pain was present in eight patients, weight loss in three, epigastric pain and weight loss in one and post prandial abdominal pain in two. At endoscopy, multiple polyps in the fundus were observed in six, verrucose gastritis in one, polyps in the antrum in one, two subcardial polyps in 1, a fundus ulcer in one and a Bormann III type lesion in one. Chronic atrophic gastritis was diagnosed in seven patients and pernicious anemia in five. Serum gastrin levels were determined in 4 patients and were high in all. Four subjects were treated with endoscopic polipectomy only. A partial or total gastrectomy was done in seven patients. No complications or mortality occurred during the follow up. Conclusions: Abdominal pain is a common presentation of patients with gastric neuroendocrine neoplasia. Polyps predominantly in the fundus are the most common endoscopic finding. Surgical treatment or endoscopical polypectomy, depending of the extension of the disease, yield satisfactory results

Obesidad: factor de riesgo para esteatohepatitis y fibrosis hepática / Obesity as a risk factor for steatohepatitis and hepatic fibrosis

Background: Nonalcoholic fatty liver (NAFL) has been recognized as a cause of chronic liver disease. Its main risk factor is obesity. Aim: To describe the clinical and liver pathological findings in a group of patients who underwent surgery as obesity treatment. Patients and Methods: Sixty eight patients with severe or morbid obesity were subjected to surgery as obesity treatment. Each patient was evaluated with a complete clinical and laboratory medical assessment. A wedge of liver was excised during surgery. Liver biopsies were analyzed without knowledge of clinical and laboratory findings. The presence of steatosis, inflammation (portal or lobular), fibrosis and cirrhosis were recorded in the pathological analysis. Age and body mass index (BMI) were correlated with pathological data. Significance was set at a p value of less than 0.05. Results: Ninety one percent of patients had steatosis, 45 percent inflammation and 47 percent fibrosis. One patient had cirrhosis (1,4 percent). There was a statistically significant association between BMI and moderate or severe steatosis (p <0.03). There was also an association between BMI and portal (p=0.017) and lobular inflammation (p=0.034). A BMI over 40 kg/m2 (morbid obesity) was significantly associated with the presence of fibrosis (p=0.032). Moreover, the presence of moderate or severe steatosis was a risk factor for the development of hepatic fibrosis (p=0.026). Conclusions: Obesity is a major and independent risk factor for steatohepatitis and fibrosis. The degree of steatosis in the liver biopsy, is a risk factor for the development of fibrosis

Enteritis y colitis por radioterapia / Enteritis and colitis due to radiation

Desde fines del siglo XIX, con la utilización de los rayos X, aparecieron las primeras descripciones de lesiones ocasionadas por la radiación abdominal y pelviana. Luego, en la segunda mitad del siglo XX se perfeccionaron los equipos de radiación que se utilizaron en el tratamiento del cáncer. Desde esa fecha, se multiplicaron los pacientes con afección actínica de algún segmento del tubo digestivo. La radiación produce en el intestino: a) lesiones agudas en las primeras semanas, generalmente autolimitadas, que habitualmente no requieren manejo específico y b) lesiones crónicas que aparecen entre 6 meses a 2 años y se caracterizan por dolor abdominal, diarrea y sangrado digestivo, junto con las complicaciones como fístulas, estenosis y perforación, que son subsidiarias de terapias de elevada complejidad y morbimortalidad. Entre los métodos diagnósticos se incluye la colonoscopía, que muestra lesiones en la mucosa intestinal tanto en la fase aguda como en la crónica, con edema, granularidad, friabilidad, lesiones vasculares telangiectásicas y eventualmente ulceraciones o estenosis con pérdida de pliegues y haustras. La radiología contrastada con bario muestra dilatación de asas, edema de la mucosa, pérdida de haustras o pliegues, estenosis y fístula o perforación en la fase más crónica. La tomografía axial computada proporciona ayuda en la pesquisa de complicaciones como abscesos o perforación y en el diagnóstico diferencial de carcinoma versus lesión actínica. Las medidas terapéuticas incluyen apoyo nutricional y sintomático en fase aguda. En la fase crónica, a lo anterior se agregan terapias endoscópicas como aplicación de formalina tópica, coagulación con plasma argón o argón láser. Finalmente, frente a complicaciones como estenosis, fístula o perforación, se plantea el tratamiento quirúrgico

Nuevos virus de hepatitis / New hepatitis viruses

Desde 1990 se han descrito nuevos virus responsables de hepatitis que hasta ese momento eran catalogadas como No A- No B. El virus de la hepatitis E fue descrito como virus transmisión entérica responsable de brotes epidémicos en Asia y México, documentados retrospectivamente. Es un virus RNA, de la familia Caliciviridae, que produce un cuadro similar al virus de la hepatitis A y no produce infección ni partación crónica. Posterior a 1995 se han identificado por técnicas de genéticas molecular nuevos virus, teóricamente responsables de hepatitis post-transfuncional como el virus de la hepatitis G y el virus TT, pero aún no existe certeza de su verdadero rol patogénico

Síndrome de schock tóxico por streptococcus B-hemolítico grupo A: estudio de la relación clonal entre un caso y sus contactos / Toxic shock syndrome: clonal relatedness among group A streptococcus isolates from a case and its contacts

Group A Streptococcal infections have increased in severity and frequency worldwide. We report a female patient that was admitted by Group A Streptococal lethal toxic shock syndrome due to pharyngitis as the primary focus and without cutaneous involvement. Streptococcus pyogenes was isolated from blood cultures and case definition fulfilled standard recommendations. Epidemiological studies among family members showed that two children (aged 5 and 12 years) harbored the same strain in their pharynxes as confirmed by arbitrarily primed PCR (AP-PCR) using primers ERIC and Pn-1. Control strains were included in the analysis. None of three health care workers involved in intubation and laryngoscopic procedures with the patient carried S pyogenes. AP-PCR appears to be a useful and rapid procedure to demonstrate clonal relatedness among S pyogenes strains

Experiencia clínica y seguimiento microbiológico de pacientes con cólera ingresados al Hospital Clínico de la Universidad de Chile / Clinical evaluation and microbiological follow up of colera patients hospitalized at Hospital Clínico de la Universidad de Chile

El propósito de esta comunicación es mostrar los aspectos más relevantes de la epidemiología, cuadro clínico y el estudio microbiológico de seguimiento realizado a cuatro pacientes con cólera ingresados al Hospital Clínico de la Universidad de Chile. Todos refirieron haber consumido verduras crudas 18 a 48 h antes del inicio de la enfermedad. Presentaron diarrea blanco grisácea, deshidratación, hipotensión y tendencia al shock. El primer dia eliminaron deposiciones y vómitos entre 3.680 y 10.400 ml y se les administraron soluciones orales y parenterales que fluctuaron entre 4.900 y 15.150 ml. Entre los exámenes destacaron coprocultivos positivos para V. cholerae, leucocitosis entre 14.500 y 30.000 además pH y gases que demostraron acidosis metabólica moderada a severa. Se trataron con tetraciclina salvo un paciente que además recibió previamente ciprofloxacino ev evolucionando todos en buenas condiciones. Entre 45 a 60 dias después de alta hospitalaria se realizaron coprocultivos con tórula rectal y de las deposiciones, siendo todos negativos para V. chollerae